American Revolution Yorktown Victory

Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 The War in the West While large armies were doing battle in the East, small groups of men were fighting over large areas of territory in the West. While the commanders of British outposts, such as Forts Detroit and Niagara, were encouraging local Native Americans to attack colonial settlements, the frontiersmen began to band together to fight back. The most notable campaign west of the mountains was led by Colonel George Rogers Clark who embarked from Pittsburgh with 175 men in mid-1778. Moving down the Ohio River, they captured Fort Massac at the mouth of the Tennessee River before moving overland to take Kaskaskia (Illinois) on July 4. Cahokia was captured five days later as Clark moved back east and a detachment was sent to occupy Vincennes on the Wabash River. Concerned by Clarks progress, the Lieutenant Governor of Canada, Henry Hamilton, departed Detroit with 500 men to defeat the Americans. Moving down the Wabash, he easily retook Vincennes which was renamed Fort Sackville. With winter approaching, Hamilton released many of his men and settled in with a garrison of 90. Feeling that urgent action was needed, Clark embarked on a winter campaign to retake the outpost. Marching with 127 men, they endured a tough march before attacking Fort Sackville on February 23, 1780. Hamilton was forced to surrender the next day. To the east, Loyalist and Iroquois forces attacked American settlements in western New York and northeastern Pennsylvania, as well as won a victory over Colonels Zebulon Butler and Nathan Denisons militia at Wyoming Valley on July 3, 1778. To defeat this threat, General George Washington dispatched Major General John Sullivan to the region with a force of around 4,000 men. Moving up through the Wyoming Valley, he proceeded to systematically destroy the towns and villages of the Iroquois during the summer of 1779, and badly damaged their military potential. Actions in the North Following the Battle of Monmouth, Washingtons army settled into positions near New York City to watch the forces of Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton. Operating from the Hudson Highlands, elements of Washingtons army attacked British outposts in the region. On July 16, 1779, troops under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne captured Stony Point, and a month later Major Henry Light Horse Harry Lee successfully attacked Paulus Hook. While these operations proved to be victories, American forces suffered an embarrassing defeat at Penobscot Bay in August 1779, when an expedition from Massachusetts was effectively destroyed. Another low point occurred in September 1780, when Major General Benedict Arnold, one of the heroes of Saratoga, defected to the British. The plot was revealed following the capture of Major John Andre who had been serving as a go-between for Arnold and Clinton. Articles of Confederation On March 1, 1781, the Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation which officially established a new government for the former colonies. Originally drafted in mid-1777, Congress had been operating on the Articles since that time. Designed to increase cooperation between the states, the Articles empowered Congress to make war, mint coins, resolve issues with the western territories, and negotiate diplomatic agreements. The new system did not allow Congress to levy taxes or regulate commerce. This led to Congress having to issue requests for money to the states, which were often ignored. As a result, the Continental Army suffered from a lack of funds and supplies. The issues with the Articles became more pronounced after the war and resulted in the convening of the 1787 Constitutional Convention. The Yorktown Campaign Having moved north from the Carolinas, Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis sought to reinvigorate his battered army and secure Virginia for Britain. Reinforced through the summer of 1781, Cornwallis raided around the colony and nearly captured Governor Thomas Jefferson. During this time, his army was watched by a small Continental force led by the Marquis de Lafayette. To the north, Washington linked up with the French army of Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Ponton de Rochambeau. Believing he was about to be attacked by this combined force, Clinton ordered Cornwallis to move to a deep water port where his men could be embarked for New York. Complying, Cornwallis moved his army to Yorktown to await transport. Following the British, Lafayette, now with 5,000, men took up a position at Williamsburg. Though Washington desperately wished to attack New York, he was dissuaded from this desire after receiving news that Rear Admiral Comte de Grasse planned to bring a French fleet to the Chesapeake. Seeing an opportunity, Washington and Rochambeau left a small blocking force near New York and embarked on a secret march with the bulk of the army. On September 5, Cornwallis hope for a quick departure by sea was ended following the French naval victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake. This action allowed the French to blockade the mouth of the bay, preventing Cornwallis from escaping by ship. Uniting at Williamsburg, the combined Franco-American army arrived outside Yorktown on September 28. Deploying around the town, they began building siege lines on October 5/6. A second, smaller force was dispatched to Gloucester Point, opposite Yorktown, to pen in a British garrison led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. Outnumbered more than 2-to-1, Cornwallis held out in hope that Clinton would send aid. Pounding the British lines with artillery, the allies began building a second siege line closer to Cornwallis position. This was completed following the capture of two key redoubts by allied troops. After again sending to Clinton for help, Cornwallis attempted to break out with no success on October 16. That night, the British began shifting men to Gloucester with the goal of escaping north, however a storm scattered their boats and the operation ended in failure. The next day, with no other choice, Cornwallis began surrender negotiations which were concluded two days later. Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 The Treaty of Paris With the defeat at Yorktown, support of the war in Britain declined greatly and ultimately forced Prime Minister Lord North to resign in March 1782. That year, the British government entered into peace negotiations with the United States. The American commissioners included Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Henry Laurens, and John Jay. While initial talks were inconclusive, a breakthrough was achieved in September and a preliminary treaty was finalized in late November. While Parliament expressed unhappiness with some of the terms, the final document, the Treaty of Paris, was signed on September 3, 1783. Britain also signed separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Netherlands. By the terms of the treaty, Britain recognized the thirteen former colonies as free and independent states, as well as agreed to release all prisoners of war. In addition, border and fishery issues were addressed and both sides agreed to free access to the Mississippi River. In the United States, the last British troops departed from New York City on November 25, 1783, and the treaty was ratified by Congress on January 14, 1784. After nearly nine years of conflict, the American Revolution had come to an end and a new nation was born. Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101

On March 22, 2016, The Library Of Congress Issued A Press

On March 22, 2016, the Library of Congress issued a press release outlining their decision to alter their subject heading pertaining to immigration. In the official press release, the Library of Congress outlined their reasoning behind changing their pejorative headings. â€Å"Alien† and â€Å"illegal alien†. The Public and Standards Division of the Library of Congress cited outcry from the immigrant community, as one of their major reasons for their reevaluation. In response, on May 10, Tea Party Republic successfully attempted to restrict the library’s autonym. Hence, the perplexing predicament that occurred at the Library of Congress, because of a simple phrase change. Debates about immigration terminology have reflected the clash of ideologies†¦show more content†¦Legal terms try normalized the fluidness of language. Discontent arises when these terms are perceived as to become hate speech. In the context of immigration terms such as â€Å"illegal aliens† are metaphorical attempts to cognitively grasp social discourse surrounding immigration (Cunning Ham 2). The term â€Å"illegal alien† origin is quite complex. In Impossible Subjects, Mae Ngai explains that the term is used to indicated one’s origin in a legal context. Ngai finds that the use of term â€Å"alien† is rooted in American law. Typically, the term â€Å"alien† refers to a person who is foreign to their current geographic setting but, in the United States legal system, it indicates one’s lack of citizenship (Ngai X). Discussion and debates about immigration terms rise in the 1980’s. Systematic policies primed the political arena in the United States to pass the Immigration Act of 1924, which solidified the term â€Å"illegal aliens†. That 1924 Act solidified the term â€Å"illegal aliens† by outline means to criminalized these groups. The terms â€Å"illegal aliens/alien† are used to defined those subjects are deemed unfit or American society. â€Å"Illegal aliens† are perceived as undesirable because they erode American society. American society can historically be interpreted being white American values and practice. They lack the ability to assimilate to â€Å"American society† (Ngai 57). Immigration statutes from 1921 and 1924 did not clearly outlines which groups are undesirable toShow MoreRelatedBusiness Study At Mathrubhumi Printing And Publishing Company Ltd9893 Words   |  40 PagesTHE INTERNSHIP REPORT On ORGANIZATION STUDY ON MATHRUBHUMI PRINTING AND PUBLISHING Co LTD, CALICUT Degree of Masters in Business Administration- Media Management (2014-2016) 22 MAY 2015 – 02 JULY 2015 Under the guidance of Submitted By Mrs Anvesha Sharma (ASCO) Jithin Sethumadhavan Assistant Professor A7021314001 Mrs Uttara Navin (Mathrubhumi) HR Executive Amity School of Communication Amity University, Sector-125, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201301 DECLARATION I, JITHINRead MoreCorporate Social Responsibility And Business Ethics8391 Words   |  34 Pagesof the project was inspired from personal experiences of members who have had prior work experience and from studying opinions and views of popular industrialists. Lastly, a huge token of appreciation is dedicated to our library - a rich source of a sea of information. The library resources and materials have proved to be of tremendous use and without its richness and facilities, the project was impossible to accomplish. The project is an effort to sensitize the readers towards the global culturesRead MoreAccounting 1-4 Chapter100452 Words   |  402 Pagesaccounting help you? (See page 41.) ETHICS IN FINANCIAL REPORTING People won’t gamble in a casino if they think it is â€Å"rigged.† Similarly, people won’t â€Å"play† the stock market if they think stock prices are rigged. In recent years the financial press has been full of articles about financial scandals at Enron, WorldCom, HealthSouth, and AIG. As more scandals came to light, a mistrust of financial reporting in general seemed to be developing. One article in the Wall Street Journal noted that â€Å"repeatedRead MoreThe Walt Disney Company Report15335 Words   |  62 PagesBiography Who is Robert Iger? how did he reach disney highest position? * Board: Executive Board Job Title: Chairman and Chief Executive Officer Since: 2012 Age: 60 * Iger has been the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer at Walt Disney since March 2012. * Prior to the current role, he served as the President and Chief Executive Officer from 2005 and the President and Chief Operating Officer from 2000 to 2005. * Iger also served as the President at Walt Disney International and the ChairmanRead MoreInternal Revenue Code 1939278050 Words   |  1113 PagesUNITED STATES STATUTES AT LARGE CONTAINING THE LAWS AND CONCURRENT RESOLUTIONS ENACTED DURING THE FIRST SESSION OF THE SEVENTY-SIXTH CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1939 AND TREATIES, INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS OTHER THAN TREATIES, AND PROCLAMATIONS COMPILED, EDITED, INDEXED, AND PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF LAW UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE VOLUME 53 PART 1 INTERNAL REVENUE CODE APPROVED FEBRUARY 10, 1939 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTONRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesCommunications 8 Decentralized Work Sites 8 Skill Levels 8 A Legal Concern 8 Employee Involvement 20 How Organizations Involve Employees 20 Employee Involvement Implications for HRM 20 Other HRM Challenges 21 Recession 21 Off Shoring 21 Mergers 22 A Look at Ethics 22 Summary 23 Demonstrating Comprehension: Questions for Review 24 Key Terms 24 HRM Workshop 25 Linking Concepts to Practice: Discussion Questions 25 Developing Diagnostic and Analytical Skills 25 Case 1: Work/Life Balance at Baxter 25 WorkingRead MoreMarketing and E-commerce Business65852 Words   |  264 Pagesmanufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Information Is Available 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 10: 0-13-302444-X ISBN 13: 978-0-13-302444-9 P RE FA C E E-commerce. Business. Technology. Society. 10E provides you with an in-depth introduction to theRead MoreProject Managment Case Studies214937 Words   |  860 Pages(317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our Web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Kerzner, Harold. Project management : case studies I Harold Kerzner. -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-471-75167-0 (pbk.) ISBN-10: 0-471-75167-7 (pbk.) 1. ProjectRead MoreManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 Pagesmanufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Managing information technology / Carol V. Brown . . . [et al.]. — 7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-214632-6 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-13-214632-0 (alk. paper) Read MoreAnnotated Bibliography: Plagiarism39529 Words   |  158 Pageshas also created an explosion in student plagiarism (Fialkoff and St. Lifer, 2002; Groark et al., 2001; Rimer, 2003). Through online term paper mills (http:// www.cheater.com, http://www.schoolsucks.com), Google searches, as well as access to library databases, students literally have a world of information at their fingertips. In a 2001 survey, conducted by McCabe, 41% of undergraduate students admitted that they had engaged in one or more instances of cut and paste plagiarism involving

History of Muslim Civilisations and Ideas

Question: How limited are we in understanding the past. Discuss in relation to issues and examples arising from your readings about the sources? Answer: In general, there are two types of sources available with us to get information for the past. These two sources are broadly classified as primary and secondary sources. Primary sources also referred to as first-hand sources are the ones which are written during which the specific event must have taken place (Bowen, 1928). These primary sources can include original documents, creative works and relics or artefacts. Original documents can be dairies, speeches, manuscripts, interviews, film footage, autobiographies and also official records. Creative works can include poetry, drama, novels, music etc. Further, relics can include pottery, furniture, clothing and building. Alternatively, secondary sources are second-hand sources. These sources, basically interprets the primary sources and are not written or developed during the original events. However, secondary sources can have pictures, quotes and graphics from primary sources. Commonly used secondary sources to know about past can inc lude publications. By definition, publication is defined as developing literature, journals or information and making it available to general public. Publications can be developed in form of textbooks, magazine articles, encyclopaedia, histories etc (Frye, 1975). One of the critical questions that we usually face while referring to primary and secondary sources to know about past is whether the source is credible or not? It is hard to judge whether the source is trustworthy. In such cases, looking for potential evidences to prove that the sources are trustworthy becomes one of the urgent points. This essay is based on examining various sources available to know about the past of Islam. The easy discusses about what are the sources of understanding the history of Islam and how much can we trust them? For this, we will be talking about two types of sources; traditional and non traditional and criticise them in regards to their trustworthiness. Towards the end, the essay will come down to the fact that compared to other religions the history of Islam is very strong. But there are and will always will be uncertainties and doubts related to it. In general, different aspects of Islam have been derived from Quran and the Sunna. By definition, Sunna refers to the sayings and habits of Mohammed. Besides Quran and Sunna, other factors influencing political aspects of Islam are Muslim history and non-Islamic political movements. Earlier, political concepts of Islam comprised of Caliphs, Sharia and Shura (Wiley, 2004). By definition, Caliphs are defined as the representatives who were elected or selected successors of Prophets. On the other hand, Sharia was defined as the importance of following of Islamic law and Shura was defined as the duty of the rulers to seek consultation from subjects. The abolition of Caliphate in 1924 was a major turning point in the history of Islamic world politically. Muhammad played a crucial in the Islamic religion and was believed to be last prophet sent by God to mankind. Muslims believe that Muhammad unified Arabia in a once polity called Islam (Sicker, 2000). The views about Muhammad differ among Islamic and non-Islamic communities. It was believed that by Islamic communities that Muhammad restored the original monotheistic faith of prophets including Adam, Mosses etc. Alternatively, non-Islamic communities believed that Muhammad was the founder of Islam. Muhammad lost his parents at an early age and hence, brought up by his paternal uncle. He worked as a merchant after his childhood. It was reported that Muhammad would go to a cave and spent many days there alone and praying to god in her early 40s (Wiley, 2004). As believed by Islamic communities, he received his first revelation with god in the caves only. As a result, after three years of this event, he started preaching Muslims that God is one. According to his teachings, one should surrender himself to god if he/she wants to get God. His teachings influenced few people in Islam and hence, he gained few followers. He also met with hostility from some Arabian tribes and to get rid of it, Muhammad and his followers migra ted to Medina. This event is particularly referred to as Hijra. This event led to the formation of Islamic calendar called Hijri calendar (Hanne, 2007). Hence, Quran was formed by revelations of Muhammad that he gathered during his life. The death of Muhammad was a turning point in Islam. With his death, there was a chaos that who would be his successor. Many companions of Muhammad were excited to take over as his successor (Richard, 2009). Traditional Sources Historians usually adopt the concept of Historiography to gather information about the past. By definition, historiography refers to the study of early Islam from the death of Muhammad to disintegration of Rashidun Caliph in 661 AD. Islam, as per Quran is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion. Quran is a holy book followed by Muslims and is composed of prophetic traditions of Muhammad (Muir, 2005). To know about the history of Islam, there are two kinds of sources used by researchers; traditional sources and non-traditional sources. Traditional sources used by researchers to know about the history of Islam are Quran and Sunnah of the prophet. Quran is an Islamic holy book, which Muslims believe to be a revelation of God. As per the beliefs of Muslims, Quran was revealed to Muhammad by God. Basically, Quran is Arabic word which means recitation. As believed, Quran was written during the life of Prophet Muhammad and was complied after his death. Quran is considered as one of the critic al sources about history of Islam. The holy book consists of 114 chapters (Surahs) and about 6000 versus. Broadly, the scripture comprises of economic, political, social and moral aspects of the Muslim world. Believed by many Muslim scholars that Quran is not a legal code entirely and it just teaches the kind of relationship that the man should have with God. Since Quran comprises of 6000 versus so these have been divided into three categories; science of speculative theology, rules of human conduct and ethical principles. There have been numerous judgements and opinions about the interpretation of Quran. The most authentic interpretation of versus are done by companions of Muhammad for Sunis and Imams of Shias (Muir, 2005). The reason is that they knew the exact time and place of the revelation of every versus. Besides the Muhammads companions, other important aid used to interpret the meaning of Quran is the Hadith. It is the collection of traditions of Islam from which details ab out the Islamic history can be derived. Then Shariah is the foundation of Islam which is derived from versus of Quran. Since Quran consists of a broad vision about the life of Muslims so interpretation of Quran plays a significant role. There have been numerous interpretations by researchers and Muslim thinkers. However, the authenticity of Quran is never doubtful since it is one of the critical sources to know about the history of Islam. There has been a great textual criticism linked with the Quran. Judaism and Christianity have been suffering from long-held questions about the origin of Bible. On the similar lines, many thinkers have also targeted Quran and claim that some parts of the holy book have been taken from stores of Tanakh. The differences in the versions of Quran and biblical texts reveal that some versus of Quran were not taken from texts rather has been part of oral traditions of Arab peninsula (Muir, 2005). However, this explanation appears weird to Muslims. The cri tics who have raised the issue of textual criticism against Quran have also sought to find text evolution in early Islam. However, the beliefs of Muslims in Quran entails that there are no inconsistencies and uncertainties in Quran. Hence, Quran is one of the important Islamic sources to know about the past of Muslim world. Besides Quran, other forms of traditional sources to know about history of Islam include Sunna (tradition of the Prophet), Qiyas or Analogy and Ijma or unanimous agreement (Muir, 2005). The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet The Sunna is one of the important traditional sources of Islamic law. Sunnah is an Arabic word that means Method in English. Sunnah, popularly known as the tradition of Prophet, was a term brought to life by the Prophet Muhammad as a legitimate word to depict what he believed, did and permitted. The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet includes the words, mottos, conducts, known practices, assertions of the Prophet. All the words, as well as, actions of the Prophet were carefully recorded and maintained a Hadith (Muir, 2005). Numerous records of traditions were assembled by the confidants of the Prophet which were then amalgamated with the pools if Hadith of Muslim, Bokhari, etc. The collectors of the Hadith (traditions) implemented a very scientific approach of collecting them. All the traditions they recorded were accompanied with a chain of narrators, back to the Prophet or in some cases Companion of the Prophet. The Sunna is a trusted and reliable set of traditions. The Sunnah and Q uran are interdependent. The Sunnah, mainly, explains the Quran in detail. Qiyas or Analogy Qiyas is another important source of Islamic Law. The literal meaning of qiyas is gauging the length, size, weight or quality of something. However, according to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, Qiyas is simply the reasoning by applying the process of deductive analogy. It is a process of deducing a rule for a new issue that has similar aim or motive (Illah) to an already existing rule. In this process, the motive of a known role is compared to that of the new issue, and if both are more or less, the Qiyas can be executed. However, the use of reasoning using deductive analogy among scholars was always wide ranging. While some proponents like Spains Ibn Hazm opposed the use of qiyas, others like Imam Abu Hanifa made wide use of them. Ijma or unanimous agreement Ijma, another significant source of Islamic Law, entails a unanimous or undisputed agreement of a group of jury members of same age on a specific issue. It is the fourth and final source of law according to Shafiis practices. In cases where issues or questions of Quranic clarification stood up and there existed no elucidation on them in either Quran or Sunna, jurists or an exclusive panel of proponents of Islam applied their own reasoning (ijtihaj) to come to a conclusion or an understanding. Different people perceive things differently. In the similar way, intellectual elite always had varied thoughts and so unanimous agreement hardly ever happened. Hence, the meaning of ijma and which ijma should be considered effective, as well as, useful was always a well debated issue (Richard, 2000). The Muslim society believed that it needs a rule making power to come across the practical issues and problems for the execution of Islamic Law and so ijma found its existence. Ijma or the unanimou s agreement is thought of as an adequate evidence for action as the Prophet of Islam believed that Muslim could never approve of a wrong matter or deed. These are some of the traditional sources used to know about the history of Islam. The traditions of Prophet have always been questioned due to their validity and authenticity. There were also debates on the issue that on what extend were the traditions religiously imperative. These sources let us know that followers and scholars of Islam believe that Islam has been present since the time of prophet, Adam. However, some literatures mention that Islam came into being in Mecca and Medina. The evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government went through several stages. Various periods of evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government comprise of City-state period, Imperial period and Universal period. The City-state period was from 620 to 630. Imperial period lasted from 630 to 750s (Frye, 1975). Finally, Universal period lasted from 750s to 900s. These three periods evolution of Islam state was followed by Decentralization and Fragmentation Period. The Decentralization period was from late 900s to early 1500s whereas the Fragmentation period was from late 1500s to late 1910s. These were followed by the Contemporary period which extends from late 1910s to twenty first century. Historically, the popular prophets in the Islam world comprise of Adam, Moses, Noah, Abraham and Jesus. As a result, the Muslim community has expanded rapidly (Hanne, 2007). The turning point in the Islamic world was the death of Mohammed. This event led to the expansion of Islamic community from Spain to Indus. During the golden age of Islam, the religion gave rise to many centres engaged in culture and science and led to rise of numerous doctors, philosophers, astronomers, mathematicians etc. As a result, there were technological advancements in the Islamic field and more number of people started reading Quran and it rapidly increased the rate of literacy in the field. In 18th and 19th century, regions of Islam feel under the political invasion of European Great Powers (Muir, 2005). Islamic community were also got affected by socialism and secularism. By definition, socialism refers to a political and economic theory, according to which, means of production, distribution and exchange needs to be owned and regulated by an organisation as a whole. On the other hand, secularism is defined as the principle of separation of government and followers that are authorised to represent the state from religious institutions and dignitaries. In spite of being influenced by the theories of socialism and secularism, the Islamic community dominated the political environment in early 20th century. This was the history and origin of Islamic community (Smith, 2002). Non-traditional Sources Second types of sources available to know about the history of Islam are non-traditional or secondary sources. These sources are not developed during past rather have been created using traditional sources of Islam only such as interpretation of Quran, Sunna, Qiyas and Ijmas. There can be numerous questions raised about the authenticity of the secondary source. A researcher can find it difficult to judge if the book or magazine developed using the interpretations of Quran is authentic or not. Non-traditional sources available to know about the history of Islam usually provide analysis, commentary and interpretation (Smith, 2002). High quality non-traditional sources available to retrieve data about the past of Islam are referred from multiple sources rather than one single primary source. Many Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have written about historical events, ideas and people of past Muslim world by taking references from first-hand sources. The authenticity of the sources plays a big role. It is often questioned that how do we know, what we know. Millions of Muslims across world believe that texts provided in the collection of hadith provide authentic words. Hence, the advocates of Muslim sources have come up with a criterion to prove that traditional sources used to know past of Islam are authentic. It is believed that narrators of the traditional sources had been alive some fourteen centuries ago so critics can determine, were they check by contemporaries of their times, by hadith scholars or who? But many scholars argue that it is an unreliable and non-acceptable way to check the authenticity of the sources (Smith, 2002). Considering the traditional and non-traditional sources, it is believed that history of Islam is stronger than other religions. In spite of the textual criticisms that both traditional and non-traditional sources of history of Islam receive from critics and thinkers, these are considered as best sources to know about the history and civilisations of Islam (Wiley, 2004). The sources state that the fundamental concept of Islam is to believe in one God. As per the Islamic sources, Muslims are not required to visualize god but to adore him and worship him like a protector. The sources reveal that although every religion has followers and doubters, pious and pragmatists but Islamic history is one of the stronger histories as Muslims are more committed to their religion than others. As per a poll conducted by a British company in December 2014, it is observed that history of Islam tends to motivate Muslims more than histories of any other religion (Sicker, 2000). However, there have been c onsistent uncertainties and doubts regarding this. References Bowen, H. (1928). The Life and Times of Ê ¿Al Ibn Ê ¿s: The Good Vizier., Cambridge University Press. pp. 385. Frye, N. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran., Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Hanne, E. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate., Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. pp. 55. Muir, W. (2005). The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall., Management Press, pp. 256 Smith, J. (2002) The Oxford History of the Crusades., Oxford University Press, pp. 213. Wiley, M. (2004). Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-AthÄ «r for the crusading period from al-KÄ mil fÄ «'l-ta'rÄ «kh., University Press, pp. 254 Sicker, M. (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna., Greenwood Publishing Group. Richard, J. (2009). The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem., Volume 1. 1979. Page 36.