Global City in the Asia Pacific Region

Question: Examine about the contextual analysis of Global City in the Asia Pacific Region. Answer: Inroduction: In the ongoing years, exchange assistance and generally is turning into a significant zone of strategy foundation in an alternate region and a nearby connection to improvement. The gracefully chain requirements of the huge effect are presently viewed as a hindrance to the development of the fare exchange the worldwide limits. To see the universal exchange and foundation assistance in the point of view in evaluating the general outcomes. It is viewed as a commonsense instrument in the distinguishing proof of most snags which have a connect to the thought of the smoothness or the smooth progression of universal exchange. The general outcomes with the viewpoint of administration conveyance to the broker's framework is a significant perspective in the overall conveyance. When all is said in done the realities and investigation in a store which are carefully trying through a progression of conferences, the primary being the general population and private endeavors in worldwide exchange. T he relationship in the traditions and the other outskirt offices responsible for global exchange, foundation approaches beware of the guideline of transport guideline, with an incorporation of cargo the board to be explicit the cargo forwarders. The substance of the full frameworks contain an instrument to structure and execute and furthermore improve the calculated exhibition which has an immediate connection to the foundation set up. In an alternate standpoint, the structure obstructs in a handy point of view the significant worries in execution which can be a piece of the benchmarking arrangements. Generally the viewpoints which will be consummately set up will be foundations and their guidelines, which will be liable for the demonstration of worldwide exchange and all the understanding in all points of view to permit outside venture to be an endorsement of the method of business. In this paper appraisal of foundation is in a situation to improve universal exchange. Transport and Logistic Issues in Singapore Transportation and coordinations is one specific territory where the worldwide field is studying finding an answer for make the universal business achievement in each part. Because of the reality of globalization, most difficulties are focused between the decays of exchange hindrances which is an undeniably portable workforce dispersion in the business area. The genuine possibility is in the transportation and coordinations industry which is the zone of focus. The business averagely has an estimation of having a general being better than expected. (Banomyong et.al, 2015). At the point when an extension become the part of having an element in the investigation in offering both considering the upstream and downstream, where transportation organizations with all the coordinations set up specialist co-ops who are additionally unfolding the acing angle in their most gracefully chain in the part of both sending and in reverse rules. Ideally the development the most extreme obtaining. (Ducr uet et.al, 2014). Which remember the joint endeavors for the general zone where the partnerships come and build up a change and reshaping in the most unique industry when seeing the worldwide exchange as relating the area where the conditions being in preservation are in the new corporate techniques, the total necessity in the preparing are required. Transportation and coordinations challenges are different possibilities the amplification of the incomes, which overallly affect the general creation of .the final result in the worldwide market in attempting to discover an answer for the set up issue can mean the ascent of contentions at long last market in the worldwide exchange showcase. When attempting to meet the worldwide budgetary announcing principles, it will raise worries as it might turn into an obstruction to taking part in if the general necessities are not accomplishment as determined. (Gursky et.al, 2014). In this manner a modeler of the general issue will be constructed in the event that they may happen a huge contrast in getting the opportunity to satisfy the guidelines set up. At some different cases when one attempts to deal with the dangers included it represents an arbitrary factor where comprehension turns into a main consideration to be in a foundation. Indeed while bringing all elements into control. (Lee 2014 ). There is a rising issue where the crisis outskirts its pervasiveness in the way that overseeing extortion can be one furious ascribe to get each perspective going the correct way and subsequently it is one of the issues being a looking in the vehicle and strategic offices in Singapore. At certain occasions mergers may meddle the entire procedure to affirm the genuine procedure of attempting to gain dependability really taking shape of effective universal levels they can make a securing as an approach to encourage industry reproduction. In the result an attribution of development may appear to be long away from reality for the real figures won't be accessible for handling. (Wan et.al, 2014). In thought openings in the developing business sector can turn into a worry in the skirt to attempt to make a triumphant game to the global gathering, over the long haul. Along these lines it is another factor which creates a ruckus in the manner the exchange will be completed. At the point wh en a market is being the foundation, various techniques used to arrive at budgetary security turns into a region of worry, in view of such perspective to run the general global exchange then the chipping shutting issue decorated in the financing transport framework where the general population and private organizations are included. In the genuine circumstance where change is a fundamental figure prerequisite transportation and coordinations ventures budgetary straightforwardness fused with sound administration in the process is an essential in the best in class innovation. (Small, 2014). A definitive appraisal is basing on the arrangement of help on the issues. In the specialty of boosting incomes, the coordinations organizations in Singapore ought to set up the test of recording income by executing new deals and the executives forms which will dispense with the administrations conveyance which is beneath the edge value focuses which the measurements will prompt a counteraction of deals group from genuine getting of commissions for the unrewarding deals. Framework limit and coordinations execution of Singapore and strategic pointers Singapore is one of the worldwide and furthermore the Asian center point where numerous items and item discover their way into three groups which is a worry in the global exchange advertise. In the vitality and synthetics, Singapore is the Asian's biggest accessible physical oil exchanging center point which has become a center point to have a value revelation focus. In the genuine figures, the centralization of the fuel stockpiling is the biggest which gathers up to 10 million meter cubic in genuine limit stockpiling. The vitality and synthetic substances structure a greater piece of the world's biggest bunkering port, and this has its reference to the harbor in Singapore. (Scratch, 2015). In an alternate point of view, in metals and minerals predicts a characteristic key center base for metal iron metal which is additionally in mix to coal causing it to be a position of realization into the sole of mining organizations which in old style ordering have a level of seventy to the pace s of home. The situating of the 8 LME stockrooms serves a valid statement for capacity and in the general condition turning into a perfect spot to clarify improving clearing and an estimation of more than 90 percent is considered in the worldwide world exchange iron and the mineral trades. To envision the agro-wares, Singapore is the Asia Pacific center which comprises for the grains, the base valuing for this causes the close to estimations to be 20 percent of the worldwide agro-items consequently making the global exchange execution of Singapore be a superior spot to set a realization at the last evaluating. The sea and the port presumably of Singapore attempts to bring a guideline of the port administrations in arrangement and treatment of the considerable number of exercises which as a rule gives the ability inside Singapore. The genuine vessel which is enveloping in the general navigational security which is focusing on the prosperity which is helped out through the guideline o f the major operational efficiencies which gives the earth to exchanging. In a progressively point of view angle, it works with the main improvement of advancing inside the administration organizations of Singapore and all the related associations of the sea organizations which have a consequence of making the Singapore port a worldwide focus where the oceanic exercises are in a do conspire proficiently. As a proportion of the outbound, there are six variables which are a marker of the advancement of the foundation which improves the exhibition of the universal exchange. A portion of the drivers are related straightforwardly to the earth which causes a realization to change how to the transportation framework which is under the arrangements which add to the coordinations influencing the worldwide exchange. The table underneath gives an outline. Name of the Case Study City TL Capacity Indicator Information/remark Street Transport Streets, Total Network (thousand km) The all out street organize is at the estimate of 161km turnpikes. Fundamental streets at 645km All out getting to 2048 comprehensive of gatherer streets. Street Density (kilometers of street per thousand square km of land territory Street thickness is at faltering appraisal of 75 streets/km Cleared Roads (% of all out streets) All out rate amasses to 74%. Number of enrolled substantial trucks 4755545761 the quantity of substantial trucks enrolled. Assessed street traffic passings (per 100,00 pop) In the skirt traffic demise, it is seen as of 1.8 individuals. Rail Lines (all out km) It is at 153.2 with 104 stations. Rail Transport Rail arrange (length per land region) 2km/km2 P

The Effectivity of Compressed Bandaging in Treating Venous Leg Ulcer Dissertation

The Effectivity of Compressed Bandaging in Treating Venous Leg Ulcer - Dissertation Example Elements that impact the consistence with the pressure treatment End Referencess Unique Venous ulcer is a typical ailment that effects around 1-2% of everybody during their lifetime. Treatment of this condition is enduring and tedious and numerous elements are impacting the adequacy and the recuperating paces of pressure swathe. In this examination we will basically break down the viability of pressure gauze in the treatment of venous ulcers brought about by venous inadequacy of the vein arrangement of the lower leg. So as to do so we broke down 4 investigations that inquires about the diverse part of viability of compressive gauzes. We dissected the viability of various sorts of compressive swathes. We additionally analized the viability of compressive swathe contrasted with medical procedure and we found that compressive gauzes are as compelling as medical procedure in the treatment of venous ulcers on the lower furthest points. Toward the end we additionally broke down the elements that influence the consistence of the patients to the treatment and variables that impact the right use of pressure swathes by the clinical experts. We can presume that pressure swathes are the best treatment of venous ulcers and the viability as compelling as some other new strategy for treatment. Extra research is required so as to guarantee the use of the fitting kind of pressure frameworks by the clinical experts. ... Generally speaking commonness of venous ulcers in the dreariness of the human populace is evaluated around 0.18% yet it is discovered that 1-2 % of the populace experiences ceaseless venous leg ulcers (Graham et every one of the 2003). Treatment of vein ulcers is enduring and exorbitant and the malady is inclined to reductions and intensifications. It is evaluated that around 1% of the absolute wellbeing financial plan in European western nations is spend in treatment and care of patients with this condition. In United States the evaluated costs for the treatment and care of around 6 million patients with venous leg ulcers is assessed on 2.5 billion dollars every year (Nelzen 2000) (Phillips et al. 1994). Venous ulcers are the most significant reason for constant injuries speaking to 70 to 90 percents of every single ceaseless injury which fundamentally impact the personal satisfaction of the influenced patients over delayed timeframes. There are numerous hypotheses about the etiolog y of this infection yet the specific etiology is as yet not surely knew. Veins in the calf are established of two unique and interconnected frameworks - profound and shallow vein framework which are partitioned between themselves by the muscle belt in the calf. Veins that comprise the profound framework in the long run structure the popliteal and femoral vein, are situated underneath the muscle sash and are answerable for gathering the blood from the more profound tissues and muscles of the calf. In this framework inside the muscles there are found veins with bigger volume (sinuses), without valves that go about as supplies of blood when the lower leg muscles are very still. This arrangement of profound veins can gather up to 150 ml of blood in ordinary individual, however they can capacity considerably more if there are mutations in this framework. The

Mentally Ill In Jail Essays - Mental Health,

Intellectually sick in prison The articles educate that more intellectually sick individuals are in prison than in clinics. As indicated by measurements 159,000 of intellectually sick are by and by detained in correctional facilities and jails, generally of wrongdoings submitted in light of the fact that they were not being dealt with. Some of them become rough and may threaten their families and neighborhoods. Disastrously, the vast majority of those examples of detainment are pointless. We comprehend what to do, however for financial, lawful and ideological reasons, we neglect to do it. The deinstitutionalisation of the seriously intellectually sick in the 60ties qualifies an as one of the biggest social analyses in American history. In 1995, there were 558,239 seriously intellectually sick patients in the countries open mental clinics. In 1995, the number has been decreased to 71,619. The deinstitutionalization made a psychological sickness emergency by releasing individuals from clinics without guaranteeing that they get medicine and recovery benefits in the network. Therefore, 2.2million seriously intellectually sick don't get any mental treatment. Mental patients were discharged from mental clinic in the conviction that allowing them to live in a more liberated condition was progressively empathetic and would improve their prosperity. Rather, they turned up in penitentiaries where they are essentially without nobility and need sufficient treatment and comprehension. Moreover, regardless of whether they take prescriptions and might show signs of improvement in prison, there is no assurance that they will proceed with the treatment after they are discharged into the networks. Thus the endless loop goes on. The answer for the issue is to give adequate financing to the network based psychological well-being framework so individuals would benefit from outside intervention before they become some portion of the jail framework. Administrations like drug treatment and checking, private administrations, restoration administrations and bolster administrations are effective in taking the seriously intellectually sick back to networks. When in doubt, network administrations are additionally more affordable. Rather, we see psychological well-being offices being shut and deprived of their spending plans. Accordingly the intellectually sick have no spot to go for treatment and backing. As indicated by the article When prisons must treat and rebuff in the September 4, Plain Dealer The Director of Ohio Department of Mental Health, Mike Hogan doesn't feel that the region has an issue with the intellectually sick. He accepts a large portion of them have been effectively incorporated in the public arena, and differs that many have been imprisoned. How exceptionally helpful for Mr. Hogan. Obviously, such unrealistic reasoning doesn't help the thousands who notwithstanding experiencing dysfunctional behavior experience the ill effects of the unfair social framework also. Representative Mike DeWine (R) and Democrat Ted Strickland are chipping away at advancing government enactment that would support a pilot court program to guide intellectually sick detainees to treatment offices rather than prison. They need all our help.

The Languages Of Artistic Paintings - Free Essay Example

In order to establish an informed understanding of how contemporary abstract painting is situated in the art world today, this dissertation will investigate how painting has been questioned by artists since the 1960s. It will discuss how contemporary artists have been influenced by the expanse of the technological world and how they are influenced by or reflect upon this in their paintings. Another important area of discussion will be the work of contemporary artists whose abstract paintings dont appear to have adapted to technological change and dont seem to reflect transformations in contemporary culture. These are painters who are still continuing to create paintings about paint itself and are exploring what can be done with the material alone. It is important for this dissertation to begin by defining the modernist art movement and the arrival of creative thinking that brought abstract painting into history. The theories thoughts and ideas of critic Clement Greenberg will be discussed in order to set into context the work of abstract painting. Greenberg was an influential art critique during the twentieth century, who introduced an abundance of ideas into discussion around painting from the 1930s. In particular this dissertation will address Greenbergs statements about the importance of purity and flatness in modernist painting. The dissertation will then examine how the supposed end of painting provoked discussion in the1960s, addressing how the artist Ad Reinhardt explored paintings definitions. It will also be important to assess how the advances in technology and the popularisation of image have affected painting. This will then lead into a discussion about the work of a selection of contemporary artists who have conti nued to make paintings after the medium was pushed aside by critics. What has always developed the medium of painting is not only the artists individual passion and enthusiasm to explore the vast possibilities of using paint, but also the artists interest in displaying their conceptions, thoughts and feelings visually. Artists have repeatedly attempted to push their practice to new levels, break boundaries, and depict their philosophy through the use of paint. The communication between an artist engaging with a painting and the paintings audience interpreting the artists intentions or making an interpretation of their own creates a unique language of painting. It is this language that poses questions about painting and its context within contemporary culture and history. These questions will be evaluated in this dissertation in order to establish if and how abstract painting has developed since modernism. Gerhard Richter (b. 1932) is a significant artist of both the twentieth and twenty-first centauries whose artworks have questioned the role of painting through almost five decades. His personal writings and responses in interviews are a valuable resource and a record of his artistic intentions, subject methods and his overall questioning of the medium of painting. His work is particularly interesting as it moves between abstraction and figuration and it addresses the merging of painting and technology. Richter also works with paint in an abstract nature where he uses no representational imagery to depict his thoughts. This dissertation will study the artists developing body of painting and pull out the key questions he asks about painting through painting itself and discuss them in relation to modernism and to the artwork of younger contemporary artists. The first younger Contemporary painters work that will be discussed is that of Nicholas May (b.1962. His artwork uses an experimental painterly approach with the paint material. When talking about his work the dissertation will refer to art critic James Elkin and his ideas about the language of painting, exploring what paint can do on a canvas as a material. Whilst analysing Mays work it will also relate back to Greenbergs views on modernism and the concepts that have been lost and brought forward into contemporary painting. Another contemporary artist with a similar working method to Nicholas May is the John Moores painting prize 2010 exhibitor GL Brierley. Through Comparing his work to Mays and referring to modernist concepts this dissertation hopes to achieve an understanding of how these painters works fit into the art world today. SORT OUT!! Contemporary artist Carrie Moyers work is similar to Nicholas May as it contains alchemic experimental elements, flatness of the picture plane but graphic elements suggest her influence from the digital, she studied graphic design as an M.A. influences from that but later took a painting course MFA. Her use of glitter. Feminist writings interested in female artist today. Fiona Raes painting will also be of interest. Paintings are influence from the digital, Use of Photoshop to create paintings. Discussing the questions formed by these artists creative intentions, subject methods and sources of painting will form a discussion on the status of abstract painting and the artist in society today. Looking at how abstract painting was defined during the modernist era and how it has progressed over the years to present day. The following chapter will discuss where abstract painting came from and the ideas and theories of Clement Greenberg. Chapter One: Greenbergs Theories on Modernism. Clement Greenberg sets out to define the importance of abstract art in his first manifesto written in 1936 for the magazine The Partisan Review entitled Avant-garde and the Kitsch. Here he discusses for the first time concepts behind the modernist art movement. Greenberg viewed western painting up until the early 19th century as limited. The works had become stagnated and werent moving forward, they were stuck using the same techniques and form. They used skills in perspective and chiaroscuro to form deceptive illusionistic realities on the canvas. As impressive as this was as a technical skill there then became an urge for something new, to go beyond this way of working and to challenge the material and process of painting. Greenberg described this repetition as Alexandrianism that he defined as a motionless academism in which the really important issues are left untouched because they involved debate, and in which creative activity dwindles to skill in the small details of form wit h all larger questions being decided by the standard of the old masters, therefore with this nothing new is produced.[1]From this Greenberg defines the cultural importance of Avant-garde culture as stated: . It has become amongst the signs in the midst of the decay of our present society that we some of us have become unwilling to accept this last phase of our own culture. In seeking to go beyond Alexandrianism, a part of western bourgeois society has produced something unheard of heretofore: Avant-garde culture.[2] Western societies were still recovering from World War one amid the Great Depression, with Nazism rising in Germany and the beginning of World War two approaching. Western societies at this time were stuck between two wars in a depression that followed a large increase in unemployment and bankruptcy. This decay of society heavily influenced artists and their paintings during the avant-garde movement. Modernist painting opened up art to all social classes and was a revolutionary art form that created the avant-garde culture. Painting before the modernist movement had been typically aimed at the upper class and only available for the bourgeoisie to view. The bourgeoisie is the class of people who owned and still own the means of production in the country capitalist, who exploit labourers for their own capital gain. The avant-garde artists abstract paintings scandalised the bourgeoisie by not displaying things as they are. Instead paintings were progressive, moving on from traditional realist painting and chose to use innovative forms of expression.[3]Artists began questioning the medium of painting and started producing works that formed a language of its own. Using painting they could visualise the subconscious and depict the world around them on canvas in a way that had never been done before. Although artists were opposed to the bourgeoisie capitalist values, they relied on these people for art funding. The avant-gardes stable source of income was provided from privileged among the ruling class, from which it thought of itself to be cut off. Greenberg described this as an umbilical cord of gold that has always remained attached. (Cite art in theory pg 542) Today artists find themselves in a similar position where they are often reliant on funding from galleries and the art establishment in order to produce and promote their artwork. This can lead to the artists work being restricted by gallery guidelines or what critics, collectors and the power figures of western art deem fashionable in contemporary art. Later in Greenbergs writing Modernist Painting written in 1960 he refines his definitions and explores themes further. Greenberg promotes in this essay the purity in painting in which he explores the restrictions of the medium of painting. The idea of purity in art and painting is that the art should continually move forward to improve itself by moving away from the use of imagery like that of the Renaissance. Instead Painting should move towards the two dimensional qualities of abstract painting.[4] Greenberg described this change in perspective in the following statement: Realistic naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; Modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations of the surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment were treated by the old masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly.[5] By deliberately drawing attention to the natural flatness of the canvas in a work of art, the artists have created a new perspective for the viewer to look towards the painting. In modernist painting the viewer is not meant to appreciate the deception of anything but instead admire the act of painting itself. The artist is freely acknowledging the processes limitations of trying to apply visual depth to a two-dimensional surface. Barnett Newman and Mark Rothko began a serious pursuit for flatness in their painting, aiming to create an infinite space on the canvas using a flat layer of colour and shape. Focusing on the images and content of a painting according to Greenberg was a negative factor, he believed for art to be pure and have clarity the subject matter must be thrown out and the emphasis should be put on the painting instead. Where as one tends to see what is in an old master before one sees the picture itself, one sees a modernist picture as a picture first.(cite modernist painting) This he believed was the best way to see any kind of picture and that modernism imposed it as the only and necessary way. Greenberg acknowledges in his essay Modernist Painting that the art of sculpture is by its very nature a three-dimensional form. Painting However is applied to a two-dimensional surface, modernist artists were inspired by that attribute, so rather than attempting to disregard it they embraced it. (cite MP) The artist Ad Reinhart (b.1913-1967) sought to achieve the ultimate modernist painting that contained definitive purity and flatness on the canvas. He took this tendency towards abstraction and simplification in modern art to the extreme when he created his controversial black paintings during the last ten years of his life. The next chapter will discuss Reinhardts definitions of painting and his belief that he had created the last painting. The chapter will also discuss the shift of painting from the limelight to background in art culture, as advances in technology and social interest change during the 1960s. Chapter Two: The End of Painting? Abstract painting No.5 (1962) is an example of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"black painting style which Reinhardt is best known for. The canvas appears to have a uniformly plain blue-black surface, an art piece devoid of colour and light. Seen up close however, the carefully painted layers reveal small amounts of blue, yellow and red. These colours form an underlying grid of different coloured squares, divided by a green central horizontal and a central vertical band that resemble the simple shape of a cross. Each of these colours were mixed with black oil paint to give a matt surface quality. (ref Tate modern) In an interview with Bruce Glaser, published in 1966 Reinhart discusses his black square paintings. He believed that there can be only one painting during one time and his were the only valid ones. In this interview he explains that he was trying to make the last ever painting. He also pronounces that his paintings were not about the materials or ideas and that each work he was working on always related to what he previously created. He believed art should be expressionless, clear, quiet, dignified and timeless (cite art as art pg13) in the following statement Reinhardt explains his ideas further: The one direction in fine or abstract art today is the painting of the same one form over and over again. The only intensity and the one perfection come only from long and lonely routine preparation and attention and repetition. The one originality exists only where all artists work in the same tradition and master the same convention.[6](cite Ad Reinhart Art as Art art in theory. or Reinhardt art is art page 823.) By repeating his black paintings he believed he was creating works that considered truly the ultimate modernist pure form and paintings that had been developed as far as they could possibly go. Reinhardts paintings were formalist which meant the context of the work including the reason for its creation was not necessary; the only important factor was the paintings literal form. It can be argued that Reinhardts paintings contributed to the end of modernist painting. Greenberg wrote in his essay modernist painting his acceptance that The flatness towards which Modernist painting orients itself can never be an absolute flatness.(Ref) He claimed that the instance paint touches the canvas, some depth or form has been created, therefore the canvas ceases to remain flat. He uses the artist Mondrian as an example of how a simple mark on the canvas can create a kind of optical illusion that suggests a third dimension. CG, MP (1960) pg90). S. This optically according to Rosalind Krauss: was thus an entirely abstract schematized version of a link that traditional perspective had formally established between viewer and object, but one that now transcends the real parameters of measurable, physical space to express the purely projective powers of projective level of sight. (cite Page 29) She then continues to say that the most serious issue for painting in the 1960s was not to understand its objective features, such as flatness and material surface, but its specific mode of address and to make this a source of new conventions. (Page 29.) Therefore the 1960s brought art into a situation where the concepts and ideas in a piece of art had taken precedence over the aesthetics of the object calling the end to modernism and brining art into the post-modern age. Professor Anne Ring Peter states in her essay painting spaces that The experiments of the 1960s and the 1970s had moved art into a post-medium condition (Rosalind Krauss 1999 cite pg 32 ). In which traditional arts past categories have been diminished by new interdisciplinary overlaps, and the modernist discourse on the specificity of disciplines has been over taken by the new media and their seemingly tireless potential for re adjustment, technology updating and the generation of new hybrids. Therefore painting is seen as restricted because of its simple and old fashioned materials with its thoughts being changed to the past because of its traditional origins it derives from. Pgs 123/124 CPC Paintings were now seen as dull and boring whereas the new media appeared more exciting, futuristic and popular. Peterson then states that: It is widely agreed that the cul-de-sac of painting was caused by the modernist attempt to preserve the discipline from contamination by other kinds of art and culture and restricts its activities to what the formalists regarded as its primary task: to explore the formal aspects of painting, on the theory that all painting is basically about painting. Pgs 124 CPC Through the arrival of new technology and bombardment of visual imagery this Cul-de-sac or dead end of painting placed it in the background of the art world, with more artists using new media and technology to express their ideas and perspectives through art.. Reinharts black paintings are therefore a great example of the modern paintings purism having reached an end. The following chapter will discuss Gerhards questioning of painting through his personal art practice from the beginnings of the 1960s. Chapter Three: Gerhard Richters Questioning of Painting. Gerhard Richter is a master technician and maker of painting having created both figurative and abstract artworks since the 1960s. During this time there was an upheaval in art criticism where painting was considered to have developed as far as it could go; therefore it was no longer the dominant art practice in society. Many artists were using new materials and methods to explore their ideas and perspectives of the world like performance art, body art, installation, video and conceptual but Richter chose to continue using paint. In his notes 1962 Richter sums up brilliantly where his passion for painting and creating art derives: The first impulse towards painting, or towards art in general, stems from the need to communicate, the effort to fix ones own vision, to deal with appearances (Which are alien and must be given names and meanings) without this, all work would be pointless and unjustified, like Art for Art Sake.[7] In this statement Richter is rejecting the modernist notion of Art for Art sake he believes that work with no meaning or purpose is pointless. Richters practice communicates his perspective of the world around him through his expression and questioning of painting. Richters work can be described as not fitting with any one genre moving between abstract and figurative or combing the two, one paintings form is a response to another. Richter believed that as soon as something turned into an ism, it ceased to be artist activity. He believed fixed categorisations of paintings do not serve matters of creativity. Restricting creative flow confines artistic practice and stops work developing. (cite384/5) His artwork therefore questions the art establishment and his painting in context with that.. It can be said that the artists personal development and exploration through painting is more important than how the figure heads of the art world decide to define it. Richter criticises the artists that are so consistent in their development, he never worked at paintings like a job. When artists were encouraged to make a consistent body of work or make a conscious progression from one area to the next Richter acted oppositional. His work progressed through his desire to try something new and fun. (cite384/5) If an artist needs money they may work towards a show, they may then produce works that fit into the guidelines of the gallery or collector. This work does not contain genuine artistic creativity and is a forced part of the artists art practice. Richters work moves away from convention and shows his personal development.. Modernist artist Ad Reinhardt believed that art work should be consistent and repetitive with one work of art leading into the next (cite art as art interview). Richter disregards Reinhardts modernist idea showing a progressive move from modernism. Before 1962 Richters artwork consisted of Representational paintings. In 1962 his art practiced moved to his first set of paintings based on photographs. This was due to the radical change in belief at the time about what art is; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"that it has à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"nothing to do with painting, nothing to do with composition, nor with colour Photographs are and were in the 1960s seen in abundance everyday, Richter was inspired when he saw the photograph in an new light which offered him a new view, which he believed was free from all the convention he had associated with art. It had no style, no composition and no judgement. pg4 Therefore It was only natural for Richter in the aftermath of the avant-garde to abandon the world of painting objects and turn to the investigation of refined forms of perception in photography. Written in Richters statement in 1967 he talks about how à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“we have arrived at a point where we trust reproduced reality in the form of photograph more than we do reality itself. pg 47 This perception of the world is brought to the public by the media through the camera lends. Richters work forms a critique of how the mass media influence our thinking through the photographs in news papers, posters and advertisements. Richters collection of work atlasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In an interview with Robert Storr in 2002 Richter discuses his painting Blurred table an oil painting of a table where the paint has been speared over the images disguising it. The photo for table came from an Italian design magazine called Domus. His initial approach to the photograph was to copy it realistically, but when he had finished painting it, he was dissatisfied with the result so pasted parts of it with newspaper. He was dissatisfied because there was too much paint on the canvas therefore he became less happy with it, so he over painted it. Then suddenly it acquired a quality that appealed to him and he felt it should be left that way. cite p259 This artistic development happened by chance and he learned from it then developed the medium and process to develop work further. He destroyed or over painted many pictures during this time, he wanted to draw the line from his older paintings, indicating that these earlier paintings were in the past and so he set table at the top of his work list. cite p259 Richters paintings 1965 Boy baker and girl baker were initially blurred by him to fix cracking in the painting but he got angry with it and smudged the oil paint about. Table was the first blurred painting, what provoked him to smear the image was as he describes it I painted it very realistically, and it looked so stupid. You cant paint like that, thats the problem Therefore the blurring technique started out as he describes it as either a technical emergency-cracking-or, a conceptual emergency pg382/383 His wiping away of a painting brings into question what makes a good or bad painting? Richter answers this by saying and that development in an artists practice by accident not by the convention of what is the right way to d it It is interesting that Richter felt the need to destroy his own work, what was so imperfect about the perfect picture? As a technique to give paintings an effect deliberately and also to wipe out paintings he found ugly therefore creating the painting with a status of its own. It is also interesting how obscuring the viewers vision of the piece lets them become more intrigued in the image. Through these works Richter questions the importance of colour and its effect on a painting. Richter believes that if you hang his grey paintings next to red or green the grey turns into a different colour each time, this made the paintings aesthetic when he didnt want them to be. His grey paintings intended to take the object in the photograph away from its natural colour which creates an artificial operation intending to distance the object. He believed the first artificial is taking the photograph. pg 54 Through these Photo Paintings he sets up a Post Modern dialect between Modernism and the 1970s. His expertise in the language of painting displays the fate of art in technology through his creation of photo paintings; these works combine painterly abstraction along with mechanic photography. Showing influences from modernism but also developing from it. Abstract paintings From grey to colourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ sep 1977 pg 94 For two years he had been working on a different idea from the grey pictures . He decided to start in a totally different direction as he felt this couldnt go on any further. on small canvases at random he put illogical colours and forms assorted. He called them ugly sketches the total antithesis to the grey paintings they are not legible, because they devoid of meaning or logic if such a thing is possible, which is an interesting question itself. This question opened up a new door into a world of his abstract paintings. From the 1970s Richter started to create his larger abstract paintings, In 1973 during an interview with Irmeline Lebeer, (pg 72 ) Richter is asked why he thinks people wont be interested in his abstract paintings. His responds to this was that this type of artwork puts him in a trap, because the public are used to seeing his realist better-known paintings. He is worried that his abstract works will look like mere scribbles to the public. 72 It is interesting that Richter challenges Greenbergs enthusiasm towards pure painting. page 93 through his abstract cage paintings These could be viewed as purist modernist style paintings purely about the flat colour and form however in a letter to Benjamin H.D. Buchloh in may 1977 Richter says that what makes me sick above all is when the describers build that up as pure painting, completely denying the value of the object. Firstly I have said pure painting -if it could ever exist- would be a crime and secondly, these pictures are valued solely and uniquely for their stupid bumptious object content. This naturally includes the effective recording of the painters blind, ferocious motor impulse, as well as the maintaining of a semblance of intelligence and historical awareness through the choice and invention of motif. page 93 t This twists the paintings that are so important to him which he says I have nothing to say and I am saying it twisting it round into we have nothing to say and we are not saying it these purist ideas are like that of Greenbergs modernism and this shows Richters progressive development in thinking since then. Richter is still practicing the painting today. Since the 1960s technology has advanced even further, we are in a time in the western world where the internet is in almost everybodys home the digital has taken over and the influence on painting has developed it further. The next chapter discussed the work of younger contemporary artists who are creating paintings in contemporary practice. Chapter Three: The Work of Younger Contemporary Artists. The artist Fiona Rae became in the public eye during the 1990s with her use of colour shape , flatness of the picture plain hybrid use of technology with paint Fiona Rae. Does her work loose something because it makes it easier to understand because of the figurative elements or is it just more pleasing to the eye and less confusing? Or maybe they add to the confusion. Or the confusion gives it more meaning? Its all in personal perspective when looking at the canvas. Greenberg purity in painting mentioned earlier. Absence of form gives s a painting more meaning. What Paint does in contemporary art above all mediums are engaged with the material and has a language of it own. The purity of painting describes of an earthly medium playing with the material ruined by technology? Artists who use Photoshop what does this do to painting? Fiona Rae. Compare to Nicholas Mayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Digital looses the genuine experimental element tried and tested on the computer. Visually biased not a true record of thought with paint. First see it on the comp then try and replicate it. Not learn from it adjust it and edited on canvas till it is how the artist feels it should be. Maybe then the computer is the record of thought a technological one less about the material itself but about the colour and shape and that aspect of form composition. Maybe my view is biased because I personally enjoy works where you can see the application of the paint and the surface. Flat plain colour painting has been done before but so has the other, maybe more to learn from the other than the flat. The computer is the record of the thought and brings a whole new element into the paint. Does this push the medium or destroy it? Forms a new Hybrid? New is goodright? Nicholas Mays work involves stuff In the article à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Intention, Meaning and Substance in the Phenomenology of Abstract Painting Professor of Philosophy Dale Jaquette discusses the writing of Gertrude Stein, a critique and commentator on culture in particular modern abstract painting. Stine is fascinated by the visual possibilities of oil paint applied to a surface. It is something she finds intriguingly to admire. According to Stein à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The existence of the oil painting itself is the thing that draws us powerfully, whether as representation or abstract image.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ Jaquette believes that paintings do have this effect to draw us in. Stine continues to say That: when we experience painting especially but not uniquely it fascinates us because it not only reveals the world as seen by the artist but, perhaps more obviously, and, in the case of abstract art more purely and essentially, because it reveals the artists mind, the artists outlook on the world and conceptual framework, history background, obsessions, preoccupations and in a personality. pg 41 para 2 People believe that there is more talent in representational painting, however representational painting is a depiction of something other than the artists themselves. Every splodge splash brush mark and controlled abstraction is the interpretation of the artist a view of their perspective trying to capture an emotive, So it does more than just representing something that exists. Does repeated exposure to abstract art wear thin? What has been interesting is no longer what was free expression has it grown old? Has the medium been pushed so far it can no longer express anything new? pg 48 What was exciting and new pushing boundaries cant anymore because we have become desensitised by the work. Fischer pg 49 What was shocking during the avant-garde cant be done now to create similar reaction. Its not revolutionary and has lost its voomftà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Has painting run its course? Jaquette suggests the value of abstract painting its not to illustrateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ pg 51 Why abstract arts are important. link to Richterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ What does GR say about the feeling of paint and what that does? Jacs view on Elkin/ My view on Elkin. pg 53 Its is the Art Historians and the critiques that decide what happens with painting. Elkins emphasises the role of the painter. They are entranced by the qualities of the paint and by the challenge of trying to make paint do what they want it to down when applying to the surface, in both figurative and abstract painting pg 54 para 3 This is why in contemporary day with all the other ways to express ideas they choose paint. Nicholas May link with the writing s of Elkin and Richters approach to abstracts. The fascination cant die in the individual thats why painting will live on! Nicholas May his experiment and question with painting Carrie Moyer? Fiona Rae talks about her paintings language of marks. Forming a true language amongst painters. What is Elkins theory about painting? Jacques informed by the writings of Elkins states that Abstract Painting, by virtue of leaving the complications of representational content behind, constitutes a relatively pure practical enquiry by a painter into the physical properties of paint. Elkins theories can be pushed further than just oils. Talk about the reaction of how materials on a canvas create unusual textures and patterns. Or simply salt on watercolour creates a pattern. Endless ways the individual can lean from the paint material alone, but to what propose? In a gallery is the process more important than the actually piece, do we loose something when a painting is put in a gallery. Putting figurative forms into the paint is another way of experimenting and questioning the practice of painting. The act of spraying on a stencil or brush strokes that form recognisable shapes amongst the abstract marks. Does this take away its abstract nature? Has it now lost its integrity and purity? Does that even matter visually? Including figurative is another way of questioning and experimenting with painting? In a sense it is still abstract and doesnt loose anything. Spray paint is experimentation with the materialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ More of a dirty, grubby response to the paint, a fleshy natural way that Moves away from technological elements. Fantasy makes up shapes within unlike the others. Conclusion. The conclusion is the most important part of your project. It should address the issues raised in the introduction and may also be a summary. It should not contain any new material but may bring out new ideas. Is it fair to say that up to the interpretation of the viewers how they connect with the piece? We all connect differently.

American Revolution Yorktown Victory

Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 The War in the West While large armies were doing battle in the East, small groups of men were fighting over large areas of territory in the West. While the commanders of British outposts, such as Forts Detroit and Niagara, were encouraging local Native Americans to attack colonial settlements, the frontiersmen began to band together to fight back. The most notable campaign west of the mountains was led by Colonel George Rogers Clark who embarked from Pittsburgh with 175 men in mid-1778. Moving down the Ohio River, they captured Fort Massac at the mouth of the Tennessee River before moving overland to take Kaskaskia (Illinois) on July 4. Cahokia was captured five days later as Clark moved back east and a detachment was sent to occupy Vincennes on the Wabash River. Concerned by Clarks progress, the Lieutenant Governor of Canada, Henry Hamilton, departed Detroit with 500 men to defeat the Americans. Moving down the Wabash, he easily retook Vincennes which was renamed Fort Sackville. With winter approaching, Hamilton released many of his men and settled in with a garrison of 90. Feeling that urgent action was needed, Clark embarked on a winter campaign to retake the outpost. Marching with 127 men, they endured a tough march before attacking Fort Sackville on February 23, 1780. Hamilton was forced to surrender the next day. To the east, Loyalist and Iroquois forces attacked American settlements in western New York and northeastern Pennsylvania, as well as won a victory over Colonels Zebulon Butler and Nathan Denisons militia at Wyoming Valley on July 3, 1778. To defeat this threat, General George Washington dispatched Major General John Sullivan to the region with a force of around 4,000 men. Moving up through the Wyoming Valley, he proceeded to systematically destroy the towns and villages of the Iroquois during the summer of 1779, and badly damaged their military potential. Actions in the North Following the Battle of Monmouth, Washingtons army settled into positions near New York City to watch the forces of Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton. Operating from the Hudson Highlands, elements of Washingtons army attacked British outposts in the region. On July 16, 1779, troops under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne captured Stony Point, and a month later Major Henry Light Horse Harry Lee successfully attacked Paulus Hook. While these operations proved to be victories, American forces suffered an embarrassing defeat at Penobscot Bay in August 1779, when an expedition from Massachusetts was effectively destroyed. Another low point occurred in September 1780, when Major General Benedict Arnold, one of the heroes of Saratoga, defected to the British. The plot was revealed following the capture of Major John Andre who had been serving as a go-between for Arnold and Clinton. Articles of Confederation On March 1, 1781, the Continental Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation which officially established a new government for the former colonies. Originally drafted in mid-1777, Congress had been operating on the Articles since that time. Designed to increase cooperation between the states, the Articles empowered Congress to make war, mint coins, resolve issues with the western territories, and negotiate diplomatic agreements. The new system did not allow Congress to levy taxes or regulate commerce. This led to Congress having to issue requests for money to the states, which were often ignored. As a result, the Continental Army suffered from a lack of funds and supplies. The issues with the Articles became more pronounced after the war and resulted in the convening of the 1787 Constitutional Convention. The Yorktown Campaign Having moved north from the Carolinas, Major General Lord Charles Cornwallis sought to reinvigorate his battered army and secure Virginia for Britain. Reinforced through the summer of 1781, Cornwallis raided around the colony and nearly captured Governor Thomas Jefferson. During this time, his army was watched by a small Continental force led by the Marquis de Lafayette. To the north, Washington linked up with the French army of Lieutenant General Jean-Baptiste Ponton de Rochambeau. Believing he was about to be attacked by this combined force, Clinton ordered Cornwallis to move to a deep water port where his men could be embarked for New York. Complying, Cornwallis moved his army to Yorktown to await transport. Following the British, Lafayette, now with 5,000, men took up a position at Williamsburg. Though Washington desperately wished to attack New York, he was dissuaded from this desire after receiving news that Rear Admiral Comte de Grasse planned to bring a French fleet to the Chesapeake. Seeing an opportunity, Washington and Rochambeau left a small blocking force near New York and embarked on a secret march with the bulk of the army. On September 5, Cornwallis hope for a quick departure by sea was ended following the French naval victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake. This action allowed the French to blockade the mouth of the bay, preventing Cornwallis from escaping by ship. Uniting at Williamsburg, the combined Franco-American army arrived outside Yorktown on September 28. Deploying around the town, they began building siege lines on October 5/6. A second, smaller force was dispatched to Gloucester Point, opposite Yorktown, to pen in a British garrison led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. Outnumbered more than 2-to-1, Cornwallis held out in hope that Clinton would send aid. Pounding the British lines with artillery, the allies began building a second siege line closer to Cornwallis position. This was completed following the capture of two key redoubts by allied troops. After again sending to Clinton for help, Cornwallis attempted to break out with no success on October 16. That night, the British began shifting men to Gloucester with the goal of escaping north, however a storm scattered their boats and the operation ended in failure. The next day, with no other choice, Cornwallis began surrender negotiations which were concluded two days later. Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101 The Treaty of Paris With the defeat at Yorktown, support of the war in Britain declined greatly and ultimately forced Prime Minister Lord North to resign in March 1782. That year, the British government entered into peace negotiations with the United States. The American commissioners included Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Henry Laurens, and John Jay. While initial talks were inconclusive, a breakthrough was achieved in September and a preliminary treaty was finalized in late November. While Parliament expressed unhappiness with some of the terms, the final document, the Treaty of Paris, was signed on September 3, 1783. Britain also signed separate treaties with Spain, France, and the Netherlands. By the terms of the treaty, Britain recognized the thirteen former colonies as free and independent states, as well as agreed to release all prisoners of war. In addition, border and fishery issues were addressed and both sides agreed to free access to the Mississippi River. In the United States, the last British troops departed from New York City on November 25, 1783, and the treaty was ratified by Congress on January 14, 1784. After nearly nine years of conflict, the American Revolution had come to an end and a new nation was born. Previous: War in the South | American Revolution 101

On March 22, 2016, The Library Of Congress Issued A Press

On March 22, 2016, the Library of Congress issued a press release outlining their decision to alter their subject heading pertaining to immigration. In the official press release, the Library of Congress outlined their reasoning behind changing their pejorative headings. â€Å"Alien† and â€Å"illegal alien†. The Public and Standards Division of the Library of Congress cited outcry from the immigrant community, as one of their major reasons for their reevaluation. In response, on May 10, Tea Party Republic successfully attempted to restrict the library’s autonym. Hence, the perplexing predicament that occurred at the Library of Congress, because of a simple phrase change. Debates about immigration terminology have reflected the clash of ideologies†¦show more content†¦Legal terms try normalized the fluidness of language. Discontent arises when these terms are perceived as to become hate speech. In the context of immigration terms such as â€Å"illegal aliens† are metaphorical attempts to cognitively grasp social discourse surrounding immigration (Cunning Ham 2). The term â€Å"illegal alien† origin is quite complex. In Impossible Subjects, Mae Ngai explains that the term is used to indicated one’s origin in a legal context. Ngai finds that the use of term â€Å"alien† is rooted in American law. Typically, the term â€Å"alien† refers to a person who is foreign to their current geographic setting but, in the United States legal system, it indicates one’s lack of citizenship (Ngai X). Discussion and debates about immigration terms rise in the 1980’s. Systematic policies primed the political arena in the United States to pass the Immigration Act of 1924, which solidified the term â€Å"illegal aliens†. That 1924 Act solidified the term â€Å"illegal aliens† by outline means to criminalized these groups. The terms â€Å"illegal aliens/alien† are used to defined those subjects are deemed unfit or American society. â€Å"Illegal aliens† are perceived as undesirable because they erode American society. American society can historically be interpreted being white American values and practice. They lack the ability to assimilate to â€Å"American society† (Ngai 57). 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History of Muslim Civilisations and Ideas

Question: How limited are we in understanding the past. Discuss in relation to issues and examples arising from your readings about the sources? Answer: In general, there are two types of sources available with us to get information for the past. These two sources are broadly classified as primary and secondary sources. Primary sources also referred to as first-hand sources are the ones which are written during which the specific event must have taken place (Bowen, 1928). These primary sources can include original documents, creative works and relics or artefacts. Original documents can be dairies, speeches, manuscripts, interviews, film footage, autobiographies and also official records. Creative works can include poetry, drama, novels, music etc. Further, relics can include pottery, furniture, clothing and building. Alternatively, secondary sources are second-hand sources. These sources, basically interprets the primary sources and are not written or developed during the original events. However, secondary sources can have pictures, quotes and graphics from primary sources. Commonly used secondary sources to know about past can inc lude publications. By definition, publication is defined as developing literature, journals or information and making it available to general public. Publications can be developed in form of textbooks, magazine articles, encyclopaedia, histories etc (Frye, 1975). One of the critical questions that we usually face while referring to primary and secondary sources to know about past is whether the source is credible or not? It is hard to judge whether the source is trustworthy. In such cases, looking for potential evidences to prove that the sources are trustworthy becomes one of the urgent points. This essay is based on examining various sources available to know about the past of Islam. The easy discusses about what are the sources of understanding the history of Islam and how much can we trust them? For this, we will be talking about two types of sources; traditional and non traditional and criticise them in regards to their trustworthiness. Towards the end, the essay will come down to the fact that compared to other religions the history of Islam is very strong. But there are and will always will be uncertainties and doubts related to it. In general, different aspects of Islam have been derived from Quran and the Sunna. By definition, Sunna refers to the sayings and habits of Mohammed. Besides Quran and Sunna, other factors influencing political aspects of Islam are Muslim history and non-Islamic political movements. Earlier, political concepts of Islam comprised of Caliphs, Sharia and Shura (Wiley, 2004). By definition, Caliphs are defined as the representatives who were elected or selected successors of Prophets. On the other hand, Sharia was defined as the importance of following of Islamic law and Shura was defined as the duty of the rulers to seek consultation from subjects. The abolition of Caliphate in 1924 was a major turning point in the history of Islamic world politically. Muhammad played a crucial in the Islamic religion and was believed to be last prophet sent by God to mankind. Muslims believe that Muhammad unified Arabia in a once polity called Islam (Sicker, 2000). The views about Muhammad differ among Islamic and non-Islamic communities. It was believed that by Islamic communities that Muhammad restored the original monotheistic faith of prophets including Adam, Mosses etc. Alternatively, non-Islamic communities believed that Muhammad was the founder of Islam. Muhammad lost his parents at an early age and hence, brought up by his paternal uncle. He worked as a merchant after his childhood. It was reported that Muhammad would go to a cave and spent many days there alone and praying to god in her early 40s (Wiley, 2004). As believed by Islamic communities, he received his first revelation with god in the caves only. As a result, after three years of this event, he started preaching Muslims that God is one. According to his teachings, one should surrender himself to god if he/she wants to get God. His teachings influenced few people in Islam and hence, he gained few followers. He also met with hostility from some Arabian tribes and to get rid of it, Muhammad and his followers migra ted to Medina. This event is particularly referred to as Hijra. This event led to the formation of Islamic calendar called Hijri calendar (Hanne, 2007). Hence, Quran was formed by revelations of Muhammad that he gathered during his life. The death of Muhammad was a turning point in Islam. With his death, there was a chaos that who would be his successor. Many companions of Muhammad were excited to take over as his successor (Richard, 2009). Traditional Sources Historians usually adopt the concept of Historiography to gather information about the past. By definition, historiography refers to the study of early Islam from the death of Muhammad to disintegration of Rashidun Caliph in 661 AD. Islam, as per Quran is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion. Quran is a holy book followed by Muslims and is composed of prophetic traditions of Muhammad (Muir, 2005). To know about the history of Islam, there are two kinds of sources used by researchers; traditional sources and non-traditional sources. Traditional sources used by researchers to know about the history of Islam are Quran and Sunnah of the prophet. Quran is an Islamic holy book, which Muslims believe to be a revelation of God. As per the beliefs of Muslims, Quran was revealed to Muhammad by God. Basically, Quran is Arabic word which means recitation. As believed, Quran was written during the life of Prophet Muhammad and was complied after his death. Quran is considered as one of the critic al sources about history of Islam. The holy book consists of 114 chapters (Surahs) and about 6000 versus. Broadly, the scripture comprises of economic, political, social and moral aspects of the Muslim world. Believed by many Muslim scholars that Quran is not a legal code entirely and it just teaches the kind of relationship that the man should have with God. Since Quran comprises of 6000 versus so these have been divided into three categories; science of speculative theology, rules of human conduct and ethical principles. There have been numerous judgements and opinions about the interpretation of Quran. The most authentic interpretation of versus are done by companions of Muhammad for Sunis and Imams of Shias (Muir, 2005). The reason is that they knew the exact time and place of the revelation of every versus. Besides the Muhammads companions, other important aid used to interpret the meaning of Quran is the Hadith. It is the collection of traditions of Islam from which details ab out the Islamic history can be derived. Then Shariah is the foundation of Islam which is derived from versus of Quran. Since Quran consists of a broad vision about the life of Muslims so interpretation of Quran plays a significant role. There have been numerous interpretations by researchers and Muslim thinkers. However, the authenticity of Quran is never doubtful since it is one of the critical sources to know about the history of Islam. There has been a great textual criticism linked with the Quran. Judaism and Christianity have been suffering from long-held questions about the origin of Bible. On the similar lines, many thinkers have also targeted Quran and claim that some parts of the holy book have been taken from stores of Tanakh. The differences in the versions of Quran and biblical texts reveal that some versus of Quran were not taken from texts rather has been part of oral traditions of Arab peninsula (Muir, 2005). However, this explanation appears weird to Muslims. The cri tics who have raised the issue of textual criticism against Quran have also sought to find text evolution in early Islam. However, the beliefs of Muslims in Quran entails that there are no inconsistencies and uncertainties in Quran. Hence, Quran is one of the important Islamic sources to know about the past of Muslim world. Besides Quran, other forms of traditional sources to know about history of Islam include Sunna (tradition of the Prophet), Qiyas or Analogy and Ijma or unanimous agreement (Muir, 2005). The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet The Sunna is one of the important traditional sources of Islamic law. Sunnah is an Arabic word that means Method in English. Sunnah, popularly known as the tradition of Prophet, was a term brought to life by the Prophet Muhammad as a legitimate word to depict what he believed, did and permitted. The Sunna or tradition of the Prophet includes the words, mottos, conducts, known practices, assertions of the Prophet. All the words, as well as, actions of the Prophet were carefully recorded and maintained a Hadith (Muir, 2005). Numerous records of traditions were assembled by the confidants of the Prophet which were then amalgamated with the pools if Hadith of Muslim, Bokhari, etc. The collectors of the Hadith (traditions) implemented a very scientific approach of collecting them. All the traditions they recorded were accompanied with a chain of narrators, back to the Prophet or in some cases Companion of the Prophet. The Sunna is a trusted and reliable set of traditions. The Sunnah and Q uran are interdependent. The Sunnah, mainly, explains the Quran in detail. Qiyas or Analogy Qiyas is another important source of Islamic Law. The literal meaning of qiyas is gauging the length, size, weight or quality of something. However, according to the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, Qiyas is simply the reasoning by applying the process of deductive analogy. It is a process of deducing a rule for a new issue that has similar aim or motive (Illah) to an already existing rule. In this process, the motive of a known role is compared to that of the new issue, and if both are more or less, the Qiyas can be executed. However, the use of reasoning using deductive analogy among scholars was always wide ranging. While some proponents like Spains Ibn Hazm opposed the use of qiyas, others like Imam Abu Hanifa made wide use of them. Ijma or unanimous agreement Ijma, another significant source of Islamic Law, entails a unanimous or undisputed agreement of a group of jury members of same age on a specific issue. It is the fourth and final source of law according to Shafiis practices. In cases where issues or questions of Quranic clarification stood up and there existed no elucidation on them in either Quran or Sunna, jurists or an exclusive panel of proponents of Islam applied their own reasoning (ijtihaj) to come to a conclusion or an understanding. Different people perceive things differently. In the similar way, intellectual elite always had varied thoughts and so unanimous agreement hardly ever happened. Hence, the meaning of ijma and which ijma should be considered effective, as well as, useful was always a well debated issue (Richard, 2000). The Muslim society believed that it needs a rule making power to come across the practical issues and problems for the execution of Islamic Law and so ijma found its existence. Ijma or the unanimou s agreement is thought of as an adequate evidence for action as the Prophet of Islam believed that Muslim could never approve of a wrong matter or deed. These are some of the traditional sources used to know about the history of Islam. The traditions of Prophet have always been questioned due to their validity and authenticity. There were also debates on the issue that on what extend were the traditions religiously imperative. These sources let us know that followers and scholars of Islam believe that Islam has been present since the time of prophet, Adam. However, some literatures mention that Islam came into being in Mecca and Medina. The evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government went through several stages. Various periods of evolution of Islam state and Muslim state of government comprise of City-state period, Imperial period and Universal period. The City-state period was from 620 to 630. Imperial period lasted from 630 to 750s (Frye, 1975). Finally, Universal period lasted from 750s to 900s. These three periods evolution of Islam state was followed by Decentralization and Fragmentation Period. The Decentralization period was from late 900s to early 1500s whereas the Fragmentation period was from late 1500s to late 1910s. These were followed by the Contemporary period which extends from late 1910s to twenty first century. Historically, the popular prophets in the Islam world comprise of Adam, Moses, Noah, Abraham and Jesus. As a result, the Muslim community has expanded rapidly (Hanne, 2007). The turning point in the Islamic world was the death of Mohammed. This event led to the expansion of Islamic community from Spain to Indus. During the golden age of Islam, the religion gave rise to many centres engaged in culture and science and led to rise of numerous doctors, philosophers, astronomers, mathematicians etc. As a result, there were technological advancements in the Islamic field and more number of people started reading Quran and it rapidly increased the rate of literacy in the field. In 18th and 19th century, regions of Islam feel under the political invasion of European Great Powers (Muir, 2005). Islamic community were also got affected by socialism and secularism. By definition, socialism refers to a political and economic theory, according to which, means of production, distribution and exchange needs to be owned and regulated by an organisation as a whole. On the other hand, secularism is defined as the principle of separation of government and followers that are authorised to represent the state from religious institutions and dignitaries. In spite of being influenced by the theories of socialism and secularism, the Islamic community dominated the political environment in early 20th century. This was the history and origin of Islamic community (Smith, 2002). Non-traditional Sources Second types of sources available to know about the history of Islam are non-traditional or secondary sources. These sources are not developed during past rather have been created using traditional sources of Islam only such as interpretation of Quran, Sunna, Qiyas and Ijmas. There can be numerous questions raised about the authenticity of the secondary source. A researcher can find it difficult to judge if the book or magazine developed using the interpretations of Quran is authentic or not. Non-traditional sources available to know about the history of Islam usually provide analysis, commentary and interpretation (Smith, 2002). High quality non-traditional sources available to retrieve data about the past of Islam are referred from multiple sources rather than one single primary source. Many Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have written about historical events, ideas and people of past Muslim world by taking references from first-hand sources. The authenticity of the sources plays a big role. It is often questioned that how do we know, what we know. Millions of Muslims across world believe that texts provided in the collection of hadith provide authentic words. Hence, the advocates of Muslim sources have come up with a criterion to prove that traditional sources used to know past of Islam are authentic. It is believed that narrators of the traditional sources had been alive some fourteen centuries ago so critics can determine, were they check by contemporaries of their times, by hadith scholars or who? But many scholars argue that it is an unreliable and non-acceptable way to check the authenticity of the sources (Smith, 2002). Considering the traditional and non-traditional sources, it is believed that history of Islam is stronger than other religions. In spite of the textual criticisms that both traditional and non-traditional sources of history of Islam receive from critics and thinkers, these are considered as best sources to know about the history and civilisations of Islam (Wiley, 2004). The sources state that the fundamental concept of Islam is to believe in one God. As per the Islamic sources, Muslims are not required to visualize god but to adore him and worship him like a protector. The sources reveal that although every religion has followers and doubters, pious and pragmatists but Islamic history is one of the stronger histories as Muslims are more committed to their religion than others. As per a poll conducted by a British company in December 2014, it is observed that history of Islam tends to motivate Muslims more than histories of any other religion (Sicker, 2000). However, there have been c onsistent uncertainties and doubts regarding this. References Bowen, H. (1928). The Life and Times of Ê ¿Al Ibn Ê ¿s: The Good Vizier., Cambridge University Press. pp. 385. Frye, N. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran., Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Hanne, E. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate., Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. pp. 55. Muir, W. (2005). The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall., Management Press, pp. 256 Smith, J. (2002) The Oxford History of the Crusades., Oxford University Press, pp. 213. Wiley, M. (2004). Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-AthÄ «r for the crusading period from al-KÄ mil fÄ «'l-ta'rÄ «kh., University Press, pp. 254 Sicker, M. (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna., Greenwood Publishing Group. Richard, J. (2009). The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem., Volume 1. 1979. Page 36.